Her akademik metin, bir noktada okuyucuya "Bu kavram nedir?" ve "Bu şey hangi grubun içine düşer?" sorularını yanıtlamak zorundadır. Tanımlama (defining) bir terimin anlamını sabitler; sınıflama (classifying) ise onu daha büyük bir düzenin içine yerleştirir ya da alt parçalara böler. Bunlar ayrı beceriler değil, aynı düşünme hareketinin iki yüzüdür: önce "X nedir" dersin, sonra "X şu türlere ayrılır" dersin.
Tanımla · define
Kavramı sözlük gibi sabitle: is defined as, refers to.
Sınıfla · classify
Kavramı haritaya yerleştir: "X bir Y türüdür" ya da "X şu türlere ayrılır".
Bu dil neden var? Çünkü akademik yazı ortak bir zemin ister. Bir tartışmaya girmeden önce terimlerin ne anlama geldiğini açıkça söylersen, okuyucuyla aynı sözlüğü paylaşırsın. Giriş paragraflarının, tez cümlelerinin ve "literatür taraması" bölümlerinin büyük kısmı tanım ve sınıflama cümlelerinden oluşur. Bu yüzden IELTS/TOEFL yazma, üniversite ödevleri ve bilimsel makalelerde bu kalıpları doğru kurmak doğrudan puana döner.
Türkçedeki benzeri tanıdıktır: "X şudur", "X, Y olarak tanımlanır", "X, Y'nin bir türüdür", "X şu gruplara ayrılır". Yani mantık aynı; zorluk, İngilizcenin bu işlevler için çok sayıda farklı fiil kullanması (refer to, denote, be defined as, comprise, consist of, fall into, be classified as...) ve her birinin dilbilgisel davranışının farklı olmasıdır.
Neden zor? Üç nedenle. Birincisi, bazı fiiller (consist of, comprise) asla edilgen olmaz ama tam da bu yüzden Türk öğrenci onları yanlışlıkla edilgenleştirir. İkincisi, refer to (aktif) ile be referred to as (edilgen) yön değiştirir ve karışır. Üçüncüsü, tanımın kalbi olan bağıl cümlelerde (which/that) virgülün olup olmaması anlamı bütünüyle değiştirir. Bu bölüm bu üç tuzağı tek tek söker.
Every academic text must, at some point, answer for the reader the questions "What is this concept?" and "Which group does this thing fall into?". Defining fixes the meaning of a term; classifying places it within a larger order or divides it into sub-parts. These are not separate skills but two sides of the same mental move: first you say "what X is", then you say "X divides into these types".
Define
Fix the concept like a dictionary: is defined as, refers to.
Classify
Place the concept on a map: "X is a type of Y" or "X divides into these types".
Why does this language exist? Because academic writing demands common ground. If you say clearly what the terms mean before entering a debate, you share the same dictionary with the reader. A large part of introductory paragraphs, thesis statements and "literature review" sections consists of definition and classification sentences. That is why building these patterns correctly translates directly into marks in IELTS/TOEFL writing, university assignments and scientific papers.
The Turkish equivalent is familiar: "X is...", "X is defined as Y", "X is a type of Y", "X divides into these groups". So the logic is the same; the difficulty is that English uses many different verbs for these functions (refer to, denote, be defined as, comprise, consist of, fall into, be classified as...) and each has a different grammatical behaviour.
Why is it hard? For three reasons. First, some verbs (consist of, comprise) are never passive, but precisely because of this the Turkish student wrongly makes them passive. Second, refer to (active) and be referred to as (passive) change direction and get confused. Third, in the relative clauses that are the heart of a definition (which/that), the presence or absence of a comma changes the meaning entirely. This section dismantles these three traps one by one.
- Tanım (aktif): X refers to / describes / denotes Y — "X, Y'yi ifade eder."
- Tanım (edilgen, en resmi): X is defined as / is known as / is referred to as Y.
- Üye olma: X is a type / form / kind of Y — küçük olan (X) büyük olanın (Y) içindedir.
- Aşağı sınıflama: X can be classified / divided / categorised into ... (çoğul kategori).
- Kategoriye girme: X falls into / belongs to the category of Y.
- Bileşim: X consists of / comprises Y (EDİLGEN DEĞİL) ↔ X is composed of / is made up of Y (edilgen).
- Örnekleme: ..., such as / including / for example, ... alt türleri sıralar.
- Bağıl cümle tanımı: A telescope is a device that makes distant objects appear closer. (virgülsüz = tanımlayan)
- which/that farkı: Virgülsüz which/that = zorunlu tanım; virgüllü which = ek bilgi.
- British/American: classify → classifies/ied; yazımda categorise (BrE) / categorize (AmE).
consist of ve comprise asla edilgen kullanılmaz: is consisted of ✗. Edilgen gerekirse be composed of / be made up of kullan.
Virgülsüz which/that = zorunlu tanım; virgüllü which = ek bilgi. Tek virgül, cümlenin anlamını bütünüyle değiştirir.
- Definition (active): X refers to / describes / denotes Y — "X expresses Y."
- Definition (passive, most formal): X is defined as / is known as / is referred to as Y.
- Membership: X is a type / form / kind of Y — the smaller one (X) is inside the larger one (Y).
- Downward classification: X can be classified / divided / categorised into ... (a plural category).
- Entering a category: X falls into / belongs to the category of Y.
- Composition: X consists of / comprises Y (NOT PASSIVE) ↔ X is composed of / is made up of Y (passive).
- Exemplification: ..., such as / including / for example, ... lists the subtypes.
- Relative-clause definition: A telescope is a device that makes distant objects appear closer. (no comma = defining)
- which/that difference: which/that without a comma = an obligatory definition; which with a comma = extra information.
- British/American: classify → classifies/ied; in spelling categorise (BrE) / categorize (AmE).
consist of and comprise are never used in the passive: is consisted of ✗. If you need the passive, use be composed of / be made up of.
which/that without a comma = an obligatory definition; which with a comma = extra information. A single comma changes the meaning of the sentence entirely.
Tanımla
is defined as, refers to — anlamı sabitle
Yukarı sınıfla
is a type of — büyük gruba yerleştir
Aşağı sınıfla
is divided into — alt türlere böl
A. Tanım cümlesi (aktif) — X refers to Y
Formül: Terim + refer to / describe / denote + tanım. Burada terim öznedir, fiil aktiftir. Türkçe "X, Y'yi ifade eder" ile birebir örtüşür ama dikkat: refer yanına to ister ve edilgene çevirmezsin.
B. Tanım cümlesi (edilgen) — X is defined as Y
Formül: Terim + is/are + defined as / known as / referred to as + tanım. En resmi tanım kalıbıdır; rapor ve sözlük dilidir. Terim yine öznedir ama fiil edilgendir. refer to'nun edilgeni tam olarak be referred to as'dir — 'as' düşerse cümle bozulur.
C. Sınıflama cümlesi — X is classified into / X is a type of Y
İki yön var. Yukarı (üyelik): X is a type/form/kind of Y — küçük öğeyi büyük gruba bağlar. Aşağı (bölme): X can be classified/divided into ... categories — büyük grubu alt türlere ayırır. Bölme yönünde nesne çoğuldur (into types/categories) çünkü ortaya birden çok grup çıkar.
D. Olumsuz ve soru biçimleri
Olumsuz: yardımcı fiile not eklenir (is not defined as, does not fall into, does not consist of). Soru: yardımcı fiil öne çıkar (What is X defined as? How can X be classified?). Anlam kontrolü sorularında en sık "How many categories...?" ve "What does X consist of?" biçimleri gelir.
| Soru | Kısa cevap |
|---|---|
| Is a spider an insect? | No, it isn't. It falls into the category of arachnids. |
| Does water contain only oxygen? | No, it doesn't. It also consists of hydrogen. |
| How many types are there? | There are three. They can be classified by size. |
Define
is defined as, refers to — fix the meaning
Classify upward
is a type of — place in a larger group
Classify downward
is divided into — divide into subtypes
A. Definition sentence (active) — X refers to Y
Formula: Term + refer to / describe / denote + definition. Here the term is the subject and the verb is active. It matches the Turkish "X, Y'yi ifade eder" exactly, but note: refer requires to after it and you do not turn it into the passive.
B. Definition sentence (passive) — X is defined as Y
Formula: Term + is/are + defined as / known as / referred to as + definition. It is the most formal definition pattern; report and dictionary language. The term is again the subject but the verb is passive. The passive of refer to is exactly be referred to as — if 'as' drops out, the sentence breaks.
C. Classification sentence — X is classified into / X is a type of Y
There are two directions. Upward (membership): X is a type/form/kind of Y — connects a small item to a larger group. Downward (division): X can be classified/divided into ... categories — divides a large group into subtypes. In the division direction the object is plural (into types/categories) because more than one group results.
D. Negative and question forms
Negative: not is added to the auxiliary (is not defined as, does not fall into, does not consist of). Question: the auxiliary comes forward (What is X defined as? How can X be classified?). In meaning-check questions the forms "How many categories...?" and "What does X consist of?" come up most often.
| Question | Short answer |
|---|---|
| Is a spider an insect? | No, it isn't. It falls into the category of arachnids. |
| Does water contain only oxygen? | No, it doesn't. It also consists of hydrogen. |
| How many types are there? | There are three. They can be classified by size. |
1) Bir terimi giriş paragrafında tanımlamak (en yaygın)
Akademik denemenin ilk paragrafında anahtar terim tanımlanır ki tartışma sağlam bir zemine otursun. En güvenli kalıp is defined as ve refers to'dur.
2) Bir kavramı alt türlere ayırmak (sınıflama paragrafı)
Bir konu, alt başlıklara bölünerek düzenli işlenir. Bu, "classification essay" ve rapor gövdelerinin iskeletidir. Alt türleri sayarken Veri Betimleme ve örnekleme dili (such as) devreye girer.
3) Bir öğeyi mevcut bir kategoriye yerleştirmek
Tek bir şeyin hangi büyük gruba ait olduğunu söylemek. Buradaki fiiller fall into, belong to, be classified as, count as'dir.
4) Bir bütünün bileşenlerini saymak
Bir sistemin/kurumun/maddenin parçalarını listelemek. Aktif tarafta consist of, comprise; edilgen tarafta be composed of, be made up of.
1) Defining a term in the introductory paragraph (most common)
In the first paragraph of an academic essay the key term is defined so that the discussion rests on solid ground. The safest patterns are is defined as and refers to.
2) Dividing a concept into subtypes (classification paragraph)
A topic is treated in an orderly way by dividing it into subheadings. This is the skeleton of a "classification essay" and of report bodies. When listing subtypes, Describing Data and exemplification language (such as) come into play.
3) Placing an item into an existing category
Saying which large group a single thing belongs to. The verbs here are fall into, belong to, be classified as, count as.
4) Listing the components of a whole
Listing the parts of a system/institution/substance. On the active side consist of, comprise; on the passive side be composed of, be made up of.
Bu konuda zaman kipi değil, işlev işaretleyen kalıp sözcükler önemlidir. Bir metinde şu ifadeleri görürsen büyük olasılıkla tanım ya da sınıflama yapılıyordur. Ama uyarı: bunlar garanti değildir; bağlam her zaman son sözü söyler.
| İşlev | Sinyal ifadeleri | Örnek |
|---|---|---|
| Tanım | is defined as, refers to, means, is known as, that is, i.e., namely | 'Latency' refers to delay in data transfer. |
| Yeniden adlandırma | is called, is termed, is referred to as, so-called | This is termed 'confirmation bias'. |
| Üyelik | is a type/form/kind of, is an example of, belongs to | Jazz is a form of music. |
| Aşağı sınıflama | can be classified/divided/categorised into, falls into ... categories | Costs fall into two categories. |
| Bileşim | consists of, comprises, is composed of, is made up of, contains | The course comprises six modules. |
| Örnekleme | such as, including, for instance, e.g., like | fruits such as mangoes |
In this topic it is not tense but the fixed words that mark the function that matter. If you see the following expressions in a text, a definition or classification is most likely being made. But a warning: these are not a guarantee; context always has the final word.
| Function | Signal expressions | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | is defined as, refers to, means, is known as, that is, i.e., namely | 'Latency' refers to delay in data transfer. |
| Renaming | is called, is termed, is referred to as, so-called | This is termed 'confirmation bias'. |
| Membership | is a type/form/kind of, is an example of, belongs to | Jazz is a form of music. |
| Downward classification | can be classified/divided/categorised into, falls into ... categories | Costs fall into two categories. |
| Composition | consists of, comprises, is composed of, is made up of, contains | The course comprises six modules. |
| Exemplification | such as, including, for instance, e.g., like | fruits such as mangoes |
Tanım fiillerinin hepsi eşanlamlı değildir; kesinlik derecesi farklıdır. is defined as kesin ve resmî bir tanım verir; can be understood as / may be described as ise tanımı tartışmaya açık bırakır (hedge). Akademik yazıda iddianın gücüne göre seçim yaparsın.
comprise ile consist of arasında ince bir yön farkı vardır. Geleneksel kurala göre bütün comprises parçaları (whole → parts), ama parçalar compose ederler bütünü (parts → whole). Yani "The whole comprises the parts" ve "The parts compose the whole" doğrudur; "is comprised of" kalıbı yaygınlaşmış olsa da titiz akademik yazıda tartışmalıdır.
Vurgu ve bakış açısı: tanımı öznenin kim olduğuyla yönlendirirsin. "Scientists define X as..." tanımın bir topluluğa ait olduğunu vurgular; "X is defined as..." ise tanımı kişisiz ve genel-geçer gösterir. İkincisi akademik yazıda daha yaygındır çünkü nesnellik izlenimi verir.
Not all definition verbs are synonymous; they differ in degree of certainty. is defined as gives a firm, formal definition; can be understood as / may be described as leaves the definition open to debate (a hedge). In academic writing you choose according to the strength of your claim.
There is a subtle directional difference between comprise and consist of. According to the traditional rule, the whole comprises the parts (whole → parts), but the parts compose the whole (parts → whole). So "The whole comprises the parts" and "The parts compose the whole" are correct; although the pattern "is comprised of" has become widespread, it is disputed in careful academic writing.
Emphasis and point of view: you steer a definition by who the subject is. "Scientists define X as..." emphasises that the definition belongs to a community; "X is defined as..." presents the definition as impersonal and universal. The second is more common in academic writing because it gives an impression of objectivity.
Türkçede tanım genellikle tek bir yardımcı yapıyla kurulur: "X, Ydir", "X, Y olarak tanımlanır", "X, Y'den oluşur". İngilizce bu işlevleri farklı fiillere böldüğü için, Türkçeden birebir çeviri sık sık yanlış edat ya da yanlış çatı üretir.
- Türkçe "-den oluşur" → İngilizcede consist OF (edat şart) ya da comprise (edatsız). İkisini karıştırma.
- Türkçe "olarak adlandırılır" edilgendir → İngilizcede is referred to AS / is called. 'as' düşerse cümle bozulur.
- Türkçe "X, Y'yi ifade eder" aktiftir → İngilizcede X refers to Y; "X is referred by Y" değil.
- Türkçe "gruplara ayrılır" → İngilizcede is divided/classified INTO (into, to değil).
In Turkish a definition is usually built with a single auxiliary structure: "X, Ydir", "X, Y olarak tanımlanır", "X, Y'den oluşur". Because English splits these functions into different verbs, a word-for-word translation from Turkish often produces the wrong preposition or the wrong voice.
- Turkish "-den oluşur" → in English consist OF (preposition required) or comprise (no preposition). Do not confuse the two.
- Turkish "olarak adlandırılır" is passive → in English is referred to AS / is called. If 'as' drops out, the sentence breaks.
- Turkish "X, Y'yi ifade eder" is active → in English X refers to Y; not "X is referred by Y".
- Turkish "gruplara ayrılır" → in English is divided/classified INTO (into, not to).
Tanım-sınıflama dili birkaç komşu işlevle karışır. Aşağıdaki tablo hangi işlevi ne zaman seçeceğini gösterir; ilgili konuya köprü verilmiştir.
| İşlev | Ne yapar | Tipik kalıp | İlgili konu |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tanımlama/Sınıflama | Kavramı sabitler ya da gruplara böler | is defined as, is a type of, classified into | (bu konu) |
| Karşılaştırma | İki şeyin benzer/farkını verir | is similar to, differs from, whereas | Karşılaştırma Dili |
| Veri betimleme | Sayı/oran/eğilim aktarır | rose to, accounts for, the majority of | Veri Betimleme |
| Örnekleme | Kategoriyi örnekle somutlar | such as, including, for instance | (bu konu, kullanım 2) |
Definition-classification language gets confused with a few neighbouring functions. The table below shows which function to choose when; a bridge to the related topic is given.
| Function | What it does | Typical pattern | Related topic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Defining/Classifying | Fixes a concept or divides into groups | is defined as, is a type of, classified into | (this topic) |
| Comparison | Gives the similarity/difference of two things | is similar to, differs from, whereas | Comparison Language |
| Describing data | Conveys number/proportion/trend | rose to, accounts for, the majority of | Describing Data |
| Exemplification | Makes a category concrete with an example | such as, including, for instance | (this topic, use case 2) |
Genel kurallar sağlamdır ama birkaç yerleşik istisna ve gri bölge vardır. Bunları bilmek, hem doğru yazmanı hem başkalarının 'hatalı' görünen ama aslında kabul gören kullanımlarını tanımanı sağlar.
- is comprised of: titiz üslup rehberleri karşı çıksa da modern İngilizcede çok yaygındır ve pek çok yayında kabul görür. Sınav güvenliği için yine de comprises (edatsız) ya da is composed of tercih et.
- that vs which: Amerikan üslubu tanımlayan cümlede 'that'i, İngiliz üslubu 'which'i de rahatça kullanır; ikisi de virgülsüzse tanımlayandır.
- consist in: nadir ve resmî; "-de yatmaktadır/özündedir" demektir: 'True wealth consists in health.' Bileşim değil, öz anlamı.
- such as vs like: akademik yazıda örnek için 'such as' yeğlenir; 'like' konuşma dilinde yaygındır ve bazı otoritelerce 'benzeri' anlamıyla karışabilir.
The general rules are solid, but there are a few established exceptions and grey areas. Knowing them lets you both write correctly and recognise others' usages that look 'wrong' but are in fact accepted.
- is comprised of: although strict style guides object, it is very widespread in modern English and accepted in many publications. For exam safety, still prefer comprises (no preposition) or is composed of.
- that vs which: American style comfortably uses 'that' in a defining clause, British style also uses 'which'; without a comma both are defining.
- consist in: rare and formal; it means "to lie in/be the essence of": 'True wealth consists in health.' The meaning is essence, not composition.
- such as vs like: in academic writing 'such as' is preferred for an example; 'like' is common in speech and, in the sense of 'similar to', can be confused by some authorities.
Tanım-sınıflama sadece akademik değildir; günlük konuşmada da bir şeyi açıklarken kullanırız. Ama günlük dilde resmî fiiller yerine daha yumuşak kalıplar (it's kind of, it's basically, it's a sort of) gelir.
Definition-classification is not only academic; we also use it in everyday conversation when explaining something. But in casual language, instead of formal verbs, softer patterns come (it's kind of, it's basically, it's a sort of).
Akademik yazıda tanım cümlesi genellikle üç işi birden yapar: terimi belirler, onu bir üst kategoriye yerleştirir ve ayırt edici özelliğini verir. Klasik kalıp: X is a [üst kategori] that/which [ayırt edici özellik]. Buna 'formal definition' (Aristotelesçi tanım) denir.
- is defined as = en resmî tanım kalıbı; giriş cümlesinde iddiadan önce gelir.
- 'capacity' = üst kategori (superordinate); tanımın ikinci işi kavramı bir sınıfa yerleştirmektir.
- can be divided into two forms + 'namely' = aşağı sınıflama ve alt türleri adlandırma.
- which emphasises... / which refers to... = alt türleri ayıran defining bağıl cümleler (virgülsüz mantık).
- 'may be understood as' = hedge; tartışmalı kavramda kesinlik iddiasını yumuşatır.
- such as 'resistance' = kavramı komşularından örnekle ayırt etme.
In academic writing a definition sentence usually does three things at once: it identifies the term, places it in a superordinate category and gives its distinguishing feature. The classic pattern: X is a [superordinate category] that/which [distinguishing feature]. This is called a 'formal definition' (an Aristotelian definition).
- is defined as = the most formal definition pattern; it comes before the claim in the introductory sentence.
- 'capacity' = the superordinate category; the second task of a definition is to place the concept in a class.
- can be divided into two forms + 'namely' = downward classification and naming the subtypes.
- which emphasises... / which refers to... = defining relative clauses that separate the subtypes (no-comma logic).
- 'may be understood as' = a hedge; it softens the claim of certainty for a contested concept.
- such as 'resistance' = distinguishing the concept from its neighbours with an example.
- is defined as energy that is drawn from sources which... = zincirlenmiş defining bağıl cümlelerle resmî tanım.
- falls outside it = bir öğenin kategori dışında kalması; fall into'nun karşıtı.
- a superordinate term that covers... = kavramı üst-kavram olarak konumlama.
- can be classified into a small number of broad types = aşağı sınıflama ana cümlesi.
- which refers to / that is captured by / a type of = alt türleri farklı kalıplarla tanıtma (çeşitlilik).
- should not be classified as 'clean' ... counts as 'renewable' = iki kategorinin (temiz vs yenilenebilir) örtüşmesi ama eşit olmaması.
- belongs to the same broad family = üyelik/aitlik dili.
- defining and classifying ... has consequences = tanım/sınıflamanın işlevsel önemi (kapanış).
- is defined as energy that is drawn from sources which... = a formal definition with chained defining relative clauses.
- falls outside it = an item falling outside the category; the opposite of fall into.
- a superordinate term that covers... = positioning the concept as a superordinate.
- can be classified into a small number of broad types = the main clause of downward classification.
- which refers to / that is captured by / a type of = introducing the subtypes with different patterns (variety).
- should not be classified as 'clean' ... counts as 'renewable' = the two categories (clean vs renewable) overlap but are not equal.
- belongs to the same broad family = the language of membership/belonging.
- defining and classifying ... has consequences = the functional importance of defining/classifying (closing).
Temel (B1)
Orta (B2)
İleri (C1)
Basic (B1)
Intermediate (B2)
Advanced (C1)
Aşağıdaki sorular kuralı değil, anlamı yoklar. Cümleyi anlayıp anlamadığını test et.
- 'A tablet is a type of computer.' — Hangisi daha büyük kategori: tablet mi computer mı?computer (üst kategori); tablet onun bir alt türü.
- 'Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.' — Su bir bileşen mi, yoksa bileşenlerden oluşan bütün mü?Su bütündür; hidrojen ve oksijen onun bileşenleridir.
- 'This gas is referred to as CO2.' — Adı verilen mi yoksa adı veren mi CO2?CO2, gaza verilen addır; gaz, CO2 olarak adlandırılır (edilgen).
- 'Insulin, which is produced in the pancreas, is a hormone.' — Virgüller ne anlatıyor: insülini tanımlıyor mu, yoksa ek bilgi mi veriyor?Ek bilgi (non-defining); insülin zaten bellidir, üretim yeri ek bilgidir.
- 'Spiders do not fall into the category of insects.' — Örümcekler böcek midir?Hayır; böcek kategorisine girmezler (ayrı bir gruptur).
The questions below test not the rule but the meaning. Test whether you understood the sentence.
- 'A tablet is a type of computer.' — Which is the larger category: tablet or computer?computer (the superordinate category); tablet is a subtype of it.
- 'Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.' — Is water a component, or the whole made of components?Water is the whole; hydrogen and oxygen are its components.
- 'This gas is referred to as CO2.' — Is CO2 the name given or the thing given a name?CO2 is the name given to the gas; the gas is referred to as CO2 (passive).
- 'Insulin, which is produced in the pancreas, is a hormone.' — What do the commas express: do they define insulin, or add extra information?Extra information (non-defining); insulin is already known, the place of production is extra information.
- 'Spiders do not fall into the category of insects.' — Are spiders insects?No; they do not fall into the category of insects (they are a separate group).
- The committee consists ___ seven members.of
- Animals can be divided ___ vertebrates and invertebrates.into
- This condition is referred to ___ hypertension.as
- Citrus fruits, ___ lemons and limes, are acidic.such as
- These cases belong ___ a rare category.to
- Water is consisted of two gases.Water consists of / is composed of two gases. (consist of edilgen olmaz)
- The book comprises of ten chapters.The book comprises ten chapters. (comprise 'of' almaz)
- Animals are classified in five groups.Animals are classified into five groups. (into)
- This gas refers as methane.This gas is referred to as methane. (edilgen + to + as)
- There are three kind of rock.There are three kinds of rock. (çoğul: kinds)
- Enflasyon, fiyatların genel artışı olarak tanımlanır.Inflation is defined as a general rise in prices.
- Kayaçlar üç ana türe ayrılabilir.Rocks can be classified/divided into three main types.
- Komite beş üyeden oluşur.The committee consists of / comprises five members.
- Balina bir memeli türüdür.A whale is a type of mammal.
- Bu süreç fotosentez olarak adlandırılır.This process is referred to as / is known as photosynthesis.
- is / a device / a barometer / measures / that / air pressureA barometer is a device that measures air pressure.
- into / can / two / be / motivation / types / dividedMotivation can be divided into two types.
- as / this / is / phenomenon / the greenhouse effect / knownThis phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect.
- The committee consists ___ seven members.of
- Animals can be divided ___ vertebrates and invertebrates.into
- This condition is referred to ___ hypertension.as
- Citrus fruits, ___ lemons and limes, are acidic.such as
- These cases belong ___ a rare category.to
- Water is consisted of two gases.Water consists of / is composed of two gases. (consist of cannot be passive)
- The book comprises of ten chapters.The book comprises ten chapters. (comprise does not take 'of')
- Animals are classified in five groups.Animals are classified into five groups. (into)
- This gas refers as methane.This gas is referred to as methane. (passive + to + as)
- There are three kind of rock.There are three kinds of rock. (plural: kinds)
- Enflasyon, fiyatların genel artışı olarak tanımlanır.Inflation is defined as a general rise in prices.
- Kayaçlar üç ana türe ayrılabilir.Rocks can be classified/divided into three main types.
- Komite beş üyeden oluşur.The committee consists of / comprises five members.
- Balina bir memeli türüdür.A whale is a type of mammal.
- Bu süreç fotosentez olarak adlandırılır.This process is referred to as / is known as photosynthesis.
- is / a device / a barometer / measures / that / air pressureA barometer is a device that measures air pressure.
- into / can / two / be / motivation / types / dividedMotivation can be divided into two types.
- as / this / is / phenomenon / the greenhouse effect / knownThis phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect.
Görev: Kendi alanından ya da ilgi alanından bir terim seç (örn. 'startup', 'ekosistem', 'algoritma') ve onu tanımlayıp sınıflayan bir paragraf (5-7 cümle) yaz. Paragraf şunları içermeli: (1) bir is defined as / refers to tanımı, (2) terimi bir üst kategoriye yerleştiren bir cümle, (3) en az bir can be classified/divided into ile aşağı sınıflama, (4) such as / including ile örnek, (5) en az bir defining bağıl cümle (virgülsüz which/that).
- Rehber soru: Terimin üst kategorisi ne? (a type of ...)
- Alt türleri neler? (can be divided into ...)
- Onu komşu kavramlardan ayıran özellik ne? (that/which ...)
- Tartışmalı bir kavramsa 'may be understood as' ile yumuşat.
Task: Choose a term from your field or area of interest (e.g. 'startup', 'ecosystem', 'algorithm') and write one paragraph (5-7 sentences) that defines and classifies it. The paragraph should include: (1) an is defined as / refers to definition, (2) a sentence placing the term in a superordinate category, (3) at least one downward classification with can be classified/divided into, (4) an example with such as / including, (5) at least one defining relative clause (which/that without commas).
- Guiding question: What is the term's superordinate category? (a type of ...)
- What are its subtypes? (can be divided into ...)
- What feature separates it from neighbouring concepts? (that/which ...)
- If it is a contested concept, soften it with 'may be understood as'.
Sıra şu şekilde işler: (1) 'X is a Y that...' ile formal definition; (2) into ile aşağı sınıflama; (3) consist of / comprise ile bileşim; (4) refer to (aktif) vs be referred to as (edilgen); (5) defining vs non-defining virgül farkı. Her aşamada bir mini yazma çıktısı iste.
The sequence works as follows: (1) a formal definition with 'X is a Y that...'; (2) downward classification with into; (3) composition with consist of / comprise; (4) refer to (active) vs be referred to as (passive); (5) the defining vs non-defining comma difference. At each stage ask for a mini writing output.
- Tanım aktif: X refers to / describes / denotes Y. refer daima 'to' ister.
- Tanım edilgen (resmî): X is defined as / is known as / is referred to as Y.
- Üyelik: X is a type/form/kind of Y — küçük olan büyük olanın içinde.
- Aşağı sınıflama: X can be classified/divided/categorised INTO ... (into, to değil).
- Kategoriye girme: X falls into / belongs to the category of Y.
- Bileşim aktif: X consists OF / comprises (edatsız) Y — ikisi de EDİLGEN OLMAZ.
- Bileşim edilgen: X is composed of / is made up of Y — 'of' zorunlu.
- Bağıl cümle: virgülsüz which/that = tanımlayan; virgüllü which = ek bilgi. Virgül anlamı değiştirir.
- Formal definition kalıbı: X is a [üst kategori] that [ayırt edici özellik].
- Hedge: tartışmalı kavramda 'may be understood as' ile kesinliği yumuşat.
- Sık hata: is consisted of, comprises of, refers as, classified IN, three kind of — hepsi yanlış.
- İlgili konular: Karşılaştırma Dili, Veri Betimleme, Akademik Kelime (AWL).
- Definition active: X refers to / describes / denotes Y. refer always requires 'to'.
- Definition passive (formal): X is defined as / is known as / is referred to as Y.
- Membership: X is a type/form/kind of Y — the smaller one is inside the larger.
- Downward classification: X can be classified/divided/categorised INTO ... (into, not to).
- Entering a category: X falls into / belongs to the category of Y.
- Composition active: X consists OF / comprises (no preposition) Y — neither is EVER PASSIVE.
- Composition passive: X is composed of / is made up of Y — 'of' is obligatory.
- Relative clause: which/that without a comma = defining; which with a comma = extra information. The comma changes the meaning.
- Formal definition pattern: X is a [superordinate category] that [distinguishing feature].
- Hedge: soften certainty for a contested concept with 'may be understood as'.
- Common errors: is consisted of, comprises of, refers as, classified IN, three kind of — all wrong.
- Related topics: Comparison Language, Describing Data, Academic Vocabulary (AWL).